Interface-resolved simulations of boiling heat transfer

Boiling heat transfer underpins many applications where large heat fluxes must be dissipated. Boiling is characterized by a wide range of coupled multiscale transport phenomena, making its accurate numerical prediction a long-standing challenge. In this context, interface-resolved simulation approaches – where the liquid-vapor interface is either explicitly or implicitly described – have undergone significant advancements, driven by improved numerical formulations, more complete thermodynamic and compressibility modeling, and the growing availability of computational resources. Here, we provide a comprehensive overview of the state of the art in interface-resolved simulations of boiling flows. We examine the different formulations governing the flow and temperature field, strategies for coupling heat and mass transfer at the interface, and current modeling approaches for small-scale physics such as nucleation, microlayer evaporation, and contact-line dynamics. By analyzing insights from recent high-fidelity simulations, a central observation is that interface-resolved simulations of boiling are hydrodynamically resolved but microscopically modeled: their predictive accuracy depends on the sub-grid closures for nucleation, microlayer, and contact-line physics no less than on the fidelity of the hydrodynamic solver. We discuss the strengths and limitations of available methods on this basis, together with the open challenges in the accurate description of boiling heat transfer.