Potentially harmful elements (PHEs) in scalp hair, soil and metallurgical wastes in Mitrovica, Kosovo: The role of oral bioaccessibility and mineralogy in human PHE exposure

Internationally publicized impacts upon human health associated with potentially harmful element (PHE) exposure have been reported amongst internally displaced populations (IDPs) in Mitrovica, Kosovo, following the Kosovan War. Particular concern has surrounded the exposure to Pb indicated by the presence of highly elevated concentrations of Pb in blood and hair samples. This study utilizes a physiologically-based in-vitro extraction method to assess the bioaccessibility of PHEs in surface soils and metallurgical waste in Mitrovica and assesses the potential daily intake of soil-bound PHEs. Maximum As (210 mg kg−1), Cd (38 mg kg−1), Cu (410 mg kg−1), Pb (18790 mg kg−1) and Zn (8500 mg kg−1) concentrations in surface soils (0–10 cm) are elevated above guideline values. Samples with high PHE concentrations (e.g. As N1000 mg kg−1; Pb N1500 mg kg−1) exhibit a wide range of bioaccessibilities (5.40–92.20% in the gastric (G) phase and 10.00–55.80% in the gastric–intestinal (G–I) phase). Samples associated with lower bioaccessibilities typically contain a number of XRD-identifiable primary and secondary mineral phases, particularly As- and Pb-bearing arsenian pyrite, beudantite, galena and cerrusite. Quantification of the potential human exposure risk associated with the ingestion of soil-associated PHEs indicates that on average, 0.01μgC dkg−1 BW d−1, 0.16μgC uk g−1 BW d−1, 0.12μgA sk g−1 BW d−1, 7.81μgP bk g−1 BW d−1, and 2.68μgZ nk g−1 BW d−1 could be bioaccessible.