Ecotoxicological and health risk assessment of toxic metals and metalloids burdened soil due to anthropogenic influence

Landfill areas are among the most common anthropogenically contaminated sites in developing countries, exacerbated by urbanization leading to increased waste generation. This study aimed to assess the environmental risks associated with nine toxic metals—Arsenic (As), Cadmium (Cd), Zinc (Zn), Manganese (Mn), Copper (Cu), Cobalt (Co), Chromium (Cr), Nickel (Ni), and Lead (Pb)—in an abandoned landfill system and the resultant health risks using the United States Environmental Protection Agency model. The concentration levels of these elements were observed to follow the order Mn > Zn > Cr > Pb > Cu > Ni > Co > As > Cd, with most metals exceeding WHO permissible limits. The enrichment factor (EF) and potential ecological risk (ER) indicated no significant enrichment and low risk for most elements except for Cd, which demonstrated moderate enrichment and very high ecological risk. The hazard index (HI) exhibited no significant risk for non-carcinogenic effects in adults and children, except for Mn in children. Furthermore, the total carcinogenic risk (TCR) was highest for Ni, Cd, and Cr among both groups. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) suggested that the metals shared similar sources and distribution patterns, emphasizing the need for comprehensive risk assessments in such contaminated sites.