Subash Chandra Bose Rapaka, Rajesh Kumar Sivasankaran Nair
This review explores the methods and challenges associated with bismuth extraction and refining within the context of critical minerals. The objective is to assess the current state of technology and highlight pathways towards sustainable practices in bismuth procurement. A comprehensive methodology encompassing an analysis of primary ores and circular secondary resources is employed, including an evaluation of established and emerging extraction routes such as pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy, and electrometallurgy. Results indicate that over 90% of bismuth is sourced from smelter intermediates of lead, copper, and tin, with newer sources emerging from thermoelectric scrap and electronic waste. The review details a multi-stage refining cascade aimed at achieving high purity (4N-6N) bismuth, with an emphasis on sustainability metrics assessing energy use, emissions, and technology readiness. A strategic technology roadmap for sustainable bismuth supply is proposed, detailing advancements in process optimization and future directions toward circular metallurgy and the integration of artificial intelligence. This critical review outlines both the current landscape and future potentials in the pursuit of greener bismuth extraction methods.
@article{a4764820-cf81-4470-a119-e7f5aa639715,
title={Bismuth Extraction and Refining in the Critical-Minerals Era: A Critical Review from Primary Ores to Circular Secondary Resources},
author={Subash Chandra Bose Rapaka and Rajesh Kumar Sivasankaran Nair},
year={2026},
language={en}
}TY - JOUR TI - Bismuth Extraction and Refining in the Critical-Minerals Era: A Critical Review from Primary Ores to Circular Secondary Resources AU - Subash Chandra Bose Rapaka AU - Rajesh Kumar Sivasankaran Nair PY - 2026 LA - en ER -
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