Model-based upscaling of vanadium redox flow battery systems: engineering

Large-scale energy storage has become an inevitable solution for integrating stochastically available renewable energy sources into the electric grid. Vanadium redox flow batteries offer a viable option among other technologies, due to their long lifetime and independently scalable output power and capacity. The electrolyte temperature should be maintained within the range of 5–40 °C for safe operation; therefore, a thermal management system is necessary, which affects battery efficiency. The study presents a detailed, containerized battery model with a hybrid thermal management system that considers thermal radiation and real ambient temperatures. A total of 180 configurations were investigated in 10 cases, ranging from 4 to 400 kW, with 18 different discharging current–cell number ratios in each case, including multistack arrangements. Current-dependent ohmic losses influence the electric efficiency, which increases from a minimum of 68% to 89% in low-current configurations. However, the net system efficiency ranges between 43% and 66% due to the self-consumption of pumps, the inverter, and the thermal management system. In addition to the detailed efficiency analysis, a comprehensive investigation of thermal processes is provided in terms of the current–cell number ratio and output power, which is crucial for designing thermal management systems and sizing batteries.