Energy storage
Browse 60 curated documents about energy storage in The Archive — the 2RA-Edition digital library for engineering and scientific research. This collection of books, journal articles, theses, reports, and technical documents on energy storage spans extractive metallurgy, mining engineering, chemistry, and applied science. Every document is searchable in full text; sign in to read, download, ask AI questions about any document, or generate cited research drafts with the AI Researcher.
Optimal Day-Ahead Scheduling of Fast EV Charging Station With Multi-Stage Battery Degradation Model
Yihao Wan, Daniel Gebbran
The paper proposes a day-ahead scheduling framework with a novel multi-stage battery degradation modeling method for an electric vehicle (EV) fast charging station (FCS) equipped with a battery energy storage system (BESS). Unlike previous studies, which employ a single battery degradation model to represent the aging process, this paper presents a multi-stage battery degradation modeling method t
Combining physical models with dynamically acquired experimental information
Bernardus Rendy, Yuxing Fei
Elemental substitution within existing structural frameworks is a widely applied strategy for developing advanced materials. Yet, optimizing target properties while maintaining phase purity usually demands extensive trial-and-error, which becomes substantially inefficient when navigating a complex design space. Here, we introduce a strategy that simultaneously and dynamically assesses composition-
Simulation of a Battery Cell on Quantum Computers: Reactions Transport
Albert J. Pool, Michael Schelling
Simulations of electrochemical materials and systems accelerate technological progress, but are still limited by computational power. In particular, quantum computing offers prospects for higher resolutions, due to the exponential amount of data that can be stored in a quantum state. As current quantum computers are still noisy, we consider a hybrid quantum-classical algorithm that divides the pro
Communication Delay Robust Control of BESS for AI Training Load Smoothing
Xue Lyu, Wei Du
AI training loads can exhibit rapid power fluctuations because their power demand differs significantly between computational and communication phases, creating challenging ramp rates at the data center point of common coupling (PCC). Integrating battery energy storage systems (BESS) in data centers is a promising mitigation option. This paper proposes a hybrid BESS control strategy that combines
Learning Control Policies from Heterogeneous Multi-Horizon Time Series in Battery Energy Management Systems
Sheng Yin, Vivek Teja Tanjavooru
This paper introduces Representation-to-Decision (R2D), an end-to-end imitation learning framework that maps heterogeneous multi-horizon time-series inputs directly to battery control decisions through modular Temporal Feature Extractors (TFEs) and a shared latent representation, without an explicit load and PV forecasting step. While accurate forecasting improves prediction quality, optimal contr
Cost-Aware Reinforcement Learning with Action Masking and Projection for Battery Energy Storage Dispatch under Suppressed-Spread Market Shifts
Kuanlin Chen, Chen-Wei Kuo
Battery energy storage system (BESS) dispatch must preserve operational feasibility while declining price spreads reduce the margin available to pay for cycling. We study a proximal policy optimization (PPO) controller whose pre-selection physical action mask and emergency projection are separated from a causal, forecast-informed economic advisory. All forecast-dependent methods receive the same c
Merging Large Language Models and Battery Physics for User-Aware Electric Vehicle Driving Management
Yukta Pareek, Yasaman Masoudi
Electric vehicle (EV) battery performance is strongly coupled with driver behavior, yet human intent is typically expressed semantically rather than numerically. This paper proposes a hybrid physics–artificial intelligence framework that integrates a Large Language Model (LLM) as a high-level behavioral reasoning layer within a physics-driven supervisory architecture. The LLM interprets textual us
Safe Receding Horizon Mixed-Integer Differentiable Predictive Control for Degradation-Aware Battery Dispatch
Eshagh Safarzadeh Ravajiri, Ján Drgoňa
We present a safe receding-horizon mixed-integer differentiable predictive control methodology for residential battery energy storage dispatch that combines neural-network speed with recursive feasibility guarantees. Unlike open-loop learning-to-optimize methods, it incorporates real-time state-of-charge feedback and sinusoidal time-of-day conditioning, enabling closed-loop re-planning at every ti
*Corresponding author. Email: ji.730@osu.edu
Kaniza Islama, Noriko Katsubea
Solid-state batteries (SSBs) with solid electrolytes (SEs) are attracting substantial investment from the automotive industry because of their potential to enable fast-charging and safer next-generation electric vehicles. The microstructure of the SE critically affects battery performance. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is a powerful, non-destructive probe of charge-transfer and tran
Ab initio Study of Substitutional Defects in Li_3OCl Solid Electrolyte for Li-ion Batteries
Carson D. Ziemke, Naveed Naemi
Improving ion transport in solid electrolytes and cathode coatings remains a key challenge for all-solid-state Li-ion batteries because their room-temperature ionic conductivity is still substantially lower than that of liquid electrolytes. In our previous combined experimental and theoretical study, we showed that thermal neutron irradiation enables defect engineering in LiBO2 through the transmu
Joint Remaining Useful Life Prediction and Capacity Estimation of Lithium-Ion Batteries Using Partial-Charging Data
Khoa Tran, Ho-Si-Hung Nguyen
Joint remaining useful life (RUL) prediction and capacity estimation require representations of both gradual degradation and recent battery behavior. This paper presents a cross-expert framework using partial-charging measurements without requiring measured historical full-cycle capacity as an input. The RUL Expert captures long-term degradation from nominal 10-min segments sampled across a 30-cyc
Runtime Safety Filtering for Two-Terminal Hazards in Robotic Battery Recycling
Yuxin Cao, Wei Song
Runtime safety filters for learned manipulation policies typically define unsafe states as unions of object-wise keep-out regions. This representation can be unnecessarily restrictive for hazards that depend on a joint spatial relation, such as battery recycling, where a conductive payload can short a charged cell only when it approaches both terminals simultaneously. We study runtime filtering fo
Surrogate-accelerated parameterisation of physics-based Li-ion battery models
A. Emir Gümrükçüoğlu, Josh Pearson
Physics-based lithium-ion battery models provide access to physically meaningful internal electrochemical states and processes, but cell-specific parameter inference from terminal current–voltage data is computationally expensive and limited by identifiability. We present a surrogate-accelerated inverse framework based on a single-particle model with electrolyte dynamics (SPMe). Its forward map us
Estimating the Health and State of Charge of Each Cell in a Second-Life Battery System from Field Data
Mart´ın Cornejo, Julian Meyer-Schwickerath
Effective use of battery storage depends on reliable estimation of its state of health (SOH) and state of charge (SOC). This study presents a framework that jointly estimates these states and parameters for a second-life battery system using field operation data, leveraging Gaussian process regression to reconstruct the open-circuit voltage (OCV) curve. Applied to a real system comprising 27 modul
Research on Advanced Materials for Li io
Hong Li, Zhaoxiang Wang
New energy technologies are critical for the realization of an energy future that is compatible with the goal of sustainable development. This study focuses on lithium ion batteries, which are becoming a key-enabling technology for electric vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles, highlighting advancements in battery materials. The objective is to present a comprehensive review of the state-of-the-a
Nanomaterials for Renewable Energy Overview Nanostructured Manganese Oxide Thin Films as Electrode Material for Supercapacitors
Hui Xia, Man On Lai
Electrochemical capacitors, also referred to as supercapacitors, are emerging as viable alternative energy storage devices, particularly for high power density applications. This paper critically reviews the current advancements in the synthesis and performance of nanostructured manganese oxide thin films as electrode materials for supercapacitors. Given the low cost and environmental friendliness
Nanomaterials for Renewable Energy Overview
Fernand D.S. Marquis
The growing global energy demand is alarming, primarily fueled by the consumption of fossil fuels, whose reserves are rapidly depleting and becoming increasingly costly. This situation has led to unacceptable levels of greenhouse gas emissions, necessitating a coherent global energy strategy to address energy harvesting, storage, conversion, and distribution. This paper investigates the role of hy
Nanomaterials for Renewable Energy
Fernand D.S. Marquis
This article discusses the critical role that nanomaterials systems play in addressing urgent global challenges related to energy and environment. With growing energy demand and sustainability concerns due to fossil fuel reliance, the focus shifts towards enhancing energy efficiency and adopting renewable energy sources. The objective is to explore the properties of nanomaterials, which are distin
2026 Zhang Zn Anode Deposition Review
Peng Zhang, Min Wang
Dendrite growth and parasitic side reactions at the Zn metal anode remain critical obstacles to the commercialization of aqueous zinc-ion batteries (AZIBs). Zn anode design regulates Zn deposition behavior from its thermodynamic and kinetic roots and is therefore recognized as a pivotal strategy to address the above bottlenecks. However, Zn deposition evolves through a complex multistage nucleatio
2022 Roberts Lithium Ion and Vanadium Flow Battery Economics
Diarmid Roberts
This thesis concerns vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFB), and whether their posited advantages over the more commercially advanced lithium-ion battery (LIB) can translate to improved economic outcomes in realistic use-cases. The key advantage of the VRFB is increased lifetime; the energy storage medium (and major cost component) is simply two solutions of vanadium at differing oxidation states he
2023 Wilson P Type Sodium Ion Cathodes
George Joseph Wilson
The shift to renewable, low-carbon energy generation creates intermittency in supply. To reduce reliance on fossil fuels, large-scale energy storage is required to store energy when it is in abundance and supply it when scarce. Sodium-ion batteries (NIBs) can enable this transition by using low-cost, sustainable materials. The P3 and P2 phases of Na0.67Mn0.9Mg0.1O2 (NMMO) are presented here as can
2021 Peters Sodium Sulphur Cell Behaviour
Ebikienmo Emylia Peters
This study investigates the performance characteristics of a 10Ah sodium sulphur (NaS) battery cell, focusing on its thermal behavior under various experimental conditions. The primary objective is to understand how temperature fluctuations affect the efficiency and stability of NaS cells, which are integral to energy storage solutions. A series of controlled experiments were conducted in the Scho
University of Bath
Falk Schneider
Marine litter is considered a common concern of humankind that poses a serious risk to marine life, human health and the economy. One of the most abundant and harmful types of marine litter is abandoned, lost or otherwise discarded fishing gear. This thesis conducts a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) to evaluate the environmental impacts associated with the retrieval and waste management of derelict fi
University of Bath
Falk Schneider
Marine litter is considered a common concern of humankind that poses a serious risk to marine life, human health and the economy. One of the most abundant and harmful types of marine litter is abandoned, lost or otherwise discarded fishing gear. This thesis conducts a life cycle assessment (LCA) to evaluate the environmental impacts associated with the retrieval and waste management of derelict fi
Roadmap for a sustainable circular economy in lithium-ion and future battery technologies
Gavin D J Harper, Emma Kendrick
The transition to a sustainable circular economy represents a critical challenge in the context of increasing demand for lithium-ion and future battery technologies. This roadmap aims to outline strategies that promote sustainable practices within battery manufacturing and recycling processes. The methodology employed includes a comprehensive review of current practices, identification of barriers
Roadmap for a sustainable circular economy in lithium-ion and future battery technologies
Gavin D J Harper, Emma Kendrick
The transition towards a sustainable circular economy is crucial for the advancement of lithium-ion and future battery technologies. This roadmap aims to outline key strategies and actions necessary for developing more sustainable practices within the battery ecosystem. The objective is to provide a comprehensive framework that integrates environmental responsibility with technological innovation.
University of Bath
Joris Šimaitis
This thesis examines the future carbon footprints of batteries and passenger cars through a prospective life cycle assessment (pLCA) framework, leveraging climate mitigation pathways derived from integrated assessment models (IAMs). The objective is to assess how varying carbon reduction strategies influence the environmental impacts associated with battery production and the use of passenger vehi
University of Bath
Joris Šimaitis
This thesis explores the future carbon footprints of batteries and passenger cars through a prospective life cycle assessment (pLCA), utilizing climate mitigation pathways derived from integrated assessment models (IAMs). The objective is to evaluate the potential impact of different scenarios on the carbon emissions resulting from the production and use of these technologies. A detailed methodolo
The Material Separation Process for Recycling End-of-life Li-ion Batteries
Liurui Li
End-of-life lithium-ion batteries retired from portable electronics, electric vehicles (EVs), and power grids need to be properly recycled to save rare earth metals and avoid any hazardous threats to the environment. The recycling process of a Lithium-ion Battery Cell/Module includes storage, transportation, deactivation, disassembly, and material recovery. This study focused on the disassembly st
OPTIMIZATION OF BATTTERY
EDET DAVID KOKOETTE, Prof. Onuh Spencer, Edet David Kokoette, Onuh Spencer
The optimization of battery management systems (BMS) is essential for the effective operation of nano satellites, which require efficient energy management strategies to maximize their operational capabilities. This thesis aims to design and implement an optimized BMS tailored for nano satellites by employing various algorithms such as Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) and Genetic Algorithms (GA)
Plantilla PFC
Peiyuan Yu, Àngel Cuadras Tomas
This thesis explores the modelling of lithium batteries and integrates it into Kalman filtering to estimate the state of charge (SOC) of lithium batteries. As Li-ion batteries are used in many applications, from cell phones to electric vehicles, battery management systems (BMS) that ensure their safe and efficient operation have become critical. Meanwhile, accurate SOC estimation is a prerequisite
A Review on State-of-Charge Estimation Methods, Energy Storage Technologies and State-of-the-Art Simulators: Recent Developments and Challenges
Muhtahir O. Oloyede, Godfrey A. Akpakwu
Exact state-of-charge estimation is necessary for every application related to energy storage systems to protect the battery from deep discharging and overcharging. This leads to an improvement in discharge efficiency and extends the battery lifecycle. Batteries are a main source of energy and are usually monitored by management systems to achieve optimal use and protection. Coming up with effecti
An Integrated Life Cycle Assessment and System Dynamics Model for
Wenting Ma, Jian Li Hao
Since the building sector accounts for more than one third of global carbon emissions, it is imperative that the sector mitigate its emissions to help reach the goal of the COP26 climate conference of achieving a global net zero by mid-century. Building refurbishment (BR) is key to reducing carbon emissions in the building sector by reducing the operational energy consumption of existing buildings
An Integrated Life Cycle Assessment and System Dynamics Model for
Wenting Ma, Jian Li Hao
Since the building sector accounts for more than one third of global carbon emissions, it is imperative that the sector mitigate its emissions to help reach the goal of the COP26 climate conference of achieving a global net zero by mid-century. Building refurbishment (BR) is key to reducing carbon emissions in the building sector by reducing the operational energy consumption of existing buildings
OPTIMIZATION OF BATTERY
Edet David Kokoette, Onuh Spencer
This thesis presents the optimization of a battery management system (BMS) for nano satellites, aimed at enhancing their operational efficiency and longevity. The objective of the research was to develop a systematic methodology for optimizing the charging and discharging processes of lithium-ion batteries used in these systems. Utilizing a combination of algorithms including Social Group Optimiza
Topology optimization of 3D flow fields for flow
Tiras Y. Lin, Sarah E. Baker
As power generated from renewables becomes more readily available, the need for power-efficient energy storage devices, such as redox flow batteries, becomes critical for successful integration of renewables into the electrical grid. An important component in a redox flow battery is the planar flow field, which is usually composed of two-dimensional channels etched into a backing plate. As reactan
Topology optimization of 3D flow fields for flow
Tiras Y. Lin, Sarah E. Baker
As power generated from renewables becomes more readily available, the need for power-efficient energy storage devices, such as redox flow batteries, becomes critical for successful integration of renewables into the electrical grid. An important component in a redox flow battery is the planar flow field, which is usually composed of two-dimensional channels etched into a backing plate. As reactant-lade
State of Health Estimation for Second-Use Electric Vehicle Batteries in Grid Applications
Yousef Hassan A Alamri
The transition towards sustainable energy solutions has intensified the interest in second-use electric vehicle (EV) batteries, particularly in grid applications. This thesis aims to provide a comprehensive study on the state of health (SoH) estimation methods for these batteries to enhance their reliability and efficacy in energy storage systems. The methodology involves the development of advanc
State of Health Estimation for Second-Use Electric Vehicle Batteries in Grid Applications
Yousef Hassan A Alamri
The increasing integration of electric vehicles (EVs) into the grid presents unique challenges and opportunities in the management of their battery systems. This research aims to develop methods for estimating the state of health (SoH) of second-use electric vehicle batteries and assess their viability for grid applications. A thorough literature review was conducted to identify existing estimatio
Comparative Analysis of Artificial Intelligence and Statistical Models for Li-ion Battery Cells State Estimation in Electric Vehicles
Rasha H.A. Tabasha
This study investigates the comparative performance of artificial intelligence (AI) and statistical models in estimating the state of lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery cells used in electric vehicles (EVs). The primary objective is to evaluate the accuracy and efficiency of different estimation techniques, facilitating better management of battery performance and longevity. The methodology involves a c
Financial and Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Domestic PV-Battery Systems
Susan Isaya Sun
This research evaluates the environmental and financial performance of domestic photovoltaic (PV) battery systems, particularly in light of the benefits and drawbacks of integrated lithium-ion batteries. The objective was to analyze whether the use of batteries in conjunction with solar PV is beneficial for both environmental sustainability and financial viability. The methodology involved develop
Robust State of Health Estimation of Lithium-ion Batteries Using
Niankai Yang, Ziyou Song
The State of Health (SOH) of lithium-ion batteries is directly related to their safety and efficiency, yet effective assessment of SOH remains challenging for real-world applications. This paper investigates the estimation of SOH, specifically capacity fading, under partial discharge with varying State of Charge (SOC) levels. The challenge arises as partial discharge truncates the data available f
Integrated Optimal Fast Charging and Active
Zehui Lu, Hao Tu
This paper presents an integrated control strategy for optimal fast charging and active thermal management of Lithium-ion batteries in extreme ambient temperatures, striking a balance between charging speed and battery health. A control-oriented thermal-NDC (nonlinear double-capacitor) battery model is proposed to describe the electrical and thermal dynamics, incorporating the effects of both an a
Financial and Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Domestic PV-Battery Systems
Susan Isaya Sun
This research explores the environmental and financial implications of domestic photovoltaic (PV) battery systems in the context of increasing adoption of lithium-ion batteries for energy storage. The study aims to assess how these systems affect sustainability, particularly focusing on the time-varying nature of grid CO2 emissions. A comprehensive model was developed based on real-time PV and loa
Integrated Optimal Fast Charging and Active
Zehui Lu, Hao Tu
This paper presents an integrated control strategy for optimal fast charging and active thermal management of Lithium-ion batteries in extreme ambient temperatures, striking a balance between charging speed and battery health. A control-oriented thermal-NDC (nonlinear double-capacitor) battery model is proposed to describe the electrical and thermal dynamics, incorporating the effects of both an a
KAN-Therm: A Lightweight Battery Thermal Model Using Kolmogorov-Arnold Network
Soumyoraj Mallick, Faysal Ahamed
A battery management system (BMS) relies on real-time estimation of battery temperature distribution in battery cells to ensure safe and optimal operation of Lithium-ion batteries. However, physical BMS often suffers from memory and computational resource limitations required by high-fidelity models. This study proposes a Kolmogorov-Arnold network (KAN) based thermal model, KAN-therm, which aims t
KAN-Therm: A Lightweight Battery Thermal Model Using Kolmogorov-Arnold Network
Soumyoraj Mallick, Faysal Ahamed
A battery management system (BMS) relies on real-time estimation of battery temperature distribution in battery cells to ensure safe and optimal operation of Lithium-ion batteries. However, physical BMS often suffers from memory and computational resource limitations required by high-fidelity models. Temperature estimation of batteries for safety-critical systems using physics-based models on phys
Upcycling Low-Nickel Polycrystalline Cathodes from Retired Electric Vehicle Batteries
Guannan Qian, Zhiyuan Li
The electrification revolution in the automobile industry and other sectors demands an annual production capacity of batteries on the order of 10² gigawatt-hours, posing a significant challenge for the supply of essential materials like cobalt and nickel, as well as their recycling at the end of the battery life cycle. Current methods, such as pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical recycling, ar
Accepted Manuscript: Sustainable Energy, Grids and Networks, 2022, 100626, ISSN 2352-
Ana Foles, Luís Fialho
The variability of the solar resource is mainly caused by cloud passing, leading to rapid power fluctuations which can challenge energy management strategies. This study aims to implement a photovoltaic self-consumption and ramp-rate control algorithm using a vanadium redox flow battery. The methodology comprises the integration of day-to-day forecast charging profiles with the energy management s
Learning battery model parameter dynamics from
Antti Aitio, Dominik Jöst
Estimating state of health is a critical function of a battery management system but remains challenging due to the variability of operating conditions and usage requirements of real applications. This paper proposes a hybrid approach combining data- and model-driven techniques for battery health estimation. We demonstrate a Bayesian data-driven method, Gaussian process regression, to estimate mod
Three-dimensional Temperature Field
Ning Tian, Huazhen Fang
Despite the increasing use of lithium-ion batteries (LiBs) across various sectors, concerns about their thermal vulnerability persist. Uneven thermal distributions in LiB packs can lead to significant safety risks, including fires and explosions. This study aims to reconstruct the three-dimensional temperature field of a LiB pack in real time, addressing the challenge of achieving high-fidelity re
Sustainable management of lithium-ion batteries after use in electric vehicles
Kirti Richa
This dissertation explores the sustainable management of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) following their use in electric vehicles (EVs). The objective is to evaluate current practices and propose improved systems for the post-consumer phase of LIBs aimed at minimizing environmental impact and resource depletion. The methodology includes a comprehensive literature review, case studies, and an analysis
A Compact Hybrid Battery Thermal Management System for Enhanced Cooling
Zhipeng Liu, Jinrong Su
Hybrid battery thermal management systems (HBTMS) that combine active liquid cooling and passive phase change materials (PCM) have demonstrated significant potential for managing the thermal characteristics of lithium-ion batteries. Nevertheless, the volume of coolant and PCM is constrained by the size and weight of the HBTMS during high charge/discharge rates, which negatively impacts convective
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Wafaa Al-Shatty, Tom Dunlop
As lithium-ion battery demand grows, so do fire safety challenges. Despite this, research on fire-damaged batteries remains limited. This study explores the distribution of valuable metals (such as Ni, Mn, Co, Cu) in two types of waste derived from lithium-ion nickel-manganese-cobalt oxide batteries (NMC811): black mass (BM) and fire-damaged waste (FD). It emphasizes that cobalt, manganese, and ni
Electrolyte Flow Rate Control for Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries using the Linear Parameter Varying Framework
Ryan McCloy, Yifeng Li
In this article, an electrolyte flow rate control approach is developed for an all-vanadium redox flow battery (VRB) system based on the linear parameter varying (LPV) framework. The electrolyte flow rate is regulated to provide a trade-off between stack voltage efficiency and pumping energy losses, so as to achieve optimal battery energy efficiency. The nonlinear process model is embedded in a li
A Compact Hybrid Battery Thermal Management System for Enhanced Cooling
Zhipeng Liu, Jinrong Su
Hybrid battery thermal management systems (HBTMS) combining active liquid cooling and passive phase change materials (PCM) cooling have shown potential for the thermal management of lithium-ion batteries. However, the fill volume of coolant and PCM in hybrid cooling systems is limited by the size and weight of the HBTMS at high charge/discharge rates. These limitations reduce convective heat trans
Economic controls co-design of hybrid
Jonathan Cohen, Michael Kane
Islanded microgrids powered by renewable energy require costly energy storage systems due to the uncontrollable generators. Energy storage needs are amplified when load and generation are misaligned on hourly, monthly, or seasonal timescales. Diversification of both loads and generation can smooth out such mismatches. This study presents a controls co-design approach to design an islanded microgri
Economic controls co-design of hybrid
Jonathan Cohen, Michael Kane
Islanded microgrids powered by renewable energy require costly energy storage systems due to the uncontrollable generators. Energy storage needs are amplified when load and generation are misaligned on hourly, monthly, or seasonal timescales. Diversification of both loads and generation can smooth out such mismatches. The ideal type of battery to smooth out remaining generation deficits will depen
Model-based upscaling of vanadium redox flow battery systems: engineering
Bence Sziffer, Viktor Józsa
Large-scale energy storage has become an inevitable solution for integrating stochastically available renewable energy sources into the electric grid. Vanadium redox flow batteries offer a viable option among other technologies, due to their long lifetime and independently scalable output power and capacity. The electrolyte temperature should be maintained within the range of 5–40 °C for safe oper
Physics-informed Machine Learning for Battery Pack Thermal
Zheng Liu, Yuan Jiang
With the popularity of electric vehicles, the demand for lithium-ion batteries is increasing. Temperature significantly influences batteries’ performance and safety. Battery thermal management systems can effectively control the temperature of batteries; therefore, batteries’ performance and safety can be ensured. However, the development process of battery thermal management systems is time-consu